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1. TEACHING PRoNUNCIAnoNA lhfferencc_far' Tkaclvcmhr Spell/ cent qftiyep Lgnguag niir/ ziini Prmiiiiii-iiiiniii nii s current lntl pfnsprtlhi lciu Iii-rs ni lung l-h (l Cuulprcliunslvt treatment ol imniriii-iniiiiri ywiliig l w,ih-rwmg mi both currvnt theory ami llritcllrl.Thu lt'i n l|liliAn (won nrinnciiing issues iinni the n ul rlilIL-ri-ul nlcllloilologlcs nnd second language iwqt . .i i.innovative teaching techniquesA rhornugh gruumling in ll( suunil s lun nl Nin-thXterltutn i-znglisiiIn gin inloimwtliis rruml stem inters (is withning,ll1(r'pi10lriy,mil Spelling iagnu ic luuls und u smenl measuresSuggestions inr syllabus designDiscussion que uns enruurage reirtlers ln (lriiw un In ll jwtstlltill language learning/ teaching experient .us they ns.Inilulr rin- contents ol ash chapte Fallo -u> c rwitlliu n tiimiiitiiiiiniirvt-guiilc inni iulliillg;srnlmlsChicrtiblg n, lJiHH nl snnii.nasigi.llVUNIVERSITY musas ' cnmbridgeorgISBN D521>kOk-37 Hano 80521 6949ui. poog/ uoqurJg/ eralng-aolaoaaamarwi)A Reference for Tale/ Jem ofEngltlrb 7to Spear/ cera of Ot/ aer Languagea lNOLLVIDNNOHJ DNTHO > Marianne Celce-Murca Donna M.Brinton Janet M.GoodwinCAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2. } Teaching PronunclatlonA Reference for Teachers of English to Speakers of Other LanguagesMarianne Celce-Murcia Donna M.Brinton Janet M.Goodwin CAMBRIDGE i335 UNIVERSITY PRESS 3. CAMHRIDGE UNIVERSITY nsss Cambridge,New York.Melbourne,Madrid,Capa 1bwn,Singpare,Sin Paulo,DelhiCambridge uniyenriry Pies:32 Avenue ofthe Americas,New York,NY 10013-2473, USAwwwaanandgeerg information on this lle:www. i:ambrdge. oI1/978D52i406949e Cambridge University Press 1996rnis publication ia in enpyrigin.Subject ro mruinry eareepiinn and to ihe pvrovisinm oirexevani coiieerivn iicenning agreements.nn rqnrndueiion of any pm may mira oinbe widinnirire wriiian penniuion nrcarnbiidge univereiry Press. Finl published 1996 mb priniing zooarrinied in inc United sanar ofAmeicn A cala/ ag record/ br Ihr;publication n available/ mm the Bririrh LibraryLibmry o/ cangreu Caialagng in Publication Dali:CeIwMixrciI,Marianne. Teaching prununcinnon:a reference rnr ranchera ni English fo spelkers nrnmer iangnages Marianne Celica-Murcia,Donna M.Brinwn,inner M.Goodwin. p.0m. Includes bibiingraniricai referenees and index. isnN 9780-S2l-40594-9 (Phk. ). SEN 973-0-521-405044 (iibic).e isaN 9734521406954 (cassette)l.Engiinn languagwPmnuncinion-Snzdy and teaching. 2. English language-Shiny and icaching-Foleign rpeairera. 3. Engiirn iangnagr-rrrndnnciaiian by foreign speakum. i.iii-inicn,Donm M.ii.Goodwin,Innet M.ni.nrie. B11310115 1996428.007-dc20 9520132ISBN 9784-SZI-40504-l henback ISBN 97841621406956 asume ISBN 978e0-5l-409l-9 pepubnckCambridge univerniry Press hu no respnnsihilny nordie pmistenoe or sccimwy ofuun for external nr Child-party inmune!Web sites Iefcrred to in this yilbliudnn and does noi guarantee mai my content nn silehWeb sites ia,or will remain,acernnae nr Ippmpnfe. Book design und text cnrnpoci un:Edward srniib Design.Inc.iiineinninnr:Edgar Blnkmey,Daisy ne Puthod,Edward sniieb Design,inn,sunioiir Techniml armaron rbomgrepnc:p.m (en lo right):Roban brn-ire/ orrmna Liaiaon,leo de Wys innTruDewyn.Bmoe Bulma/ Gimme Lniiion;p.294 (woman im bach):mil Aresu/ FPG;p.301 (EH):Anna VellfnnEvery eirnn has been nude lo me iba owners ofwpyrighted anuencia in this bnoir.We would be grnnefni rohear uni anyone who recognizes their mllerinl Ind who is acknowledged.We will he pieased to make thenecmsnry conectan:in xture edition nfthis book. IN PDND mamon o!Curmm H Puma AND l.DONALD BowaNi ' ONUNCIAHON OUR MBNIURS m 11-IETEACHMG or PR 4. CONTENTSList of Figures and TablesPrcfaceAvknowlcdgmcnts Transcnpliun KeyBYT chapter 1 Chapter 2 Ti-c ll > chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Pa TI Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 rc iv Chapter 10 Chapter l 1 Chapter 1 2 genzdis Appendix 1Appendix 2ionunciaion Instruccion in PerspectivaThe ilislory and Scupc of Pianuiiciiiiun Teal.ng Research on the Teaching and Acquisition or Pronunci ion SkillsThe Sound Sywem of North American English:An OverviewThe Consnnaul SystemThe Vowei SystemSircss,Rhythm,and Adjuxlmcms in Cunnccied Speech Prominence and hitonaliun in DiscourscIntersections olthe Sound System with Other Areas ol LanguageThe Suund Sysmm and ListeningThe Sound Syswm and Grammar:lnectional Molphultigy and Paris of SpecchThe Sound Syswm and OnhogxaphyIssues in lmplementatlonNew Directions in he Teaching of Pronunciation Pronuncialion in [ha Language cunicuium Tesling and EvaluationDifferenccs Between NAE (Nnrth American English) and British English Compaison of Phoneric and Phonemic Alphahetsvii ix xi xiio3537 93 131 1751.1|222 247269289290 319 341363 363371 5. 7*ContentsAppenlx 3 Appendx a Aupendix 5Appendix 6 Awenix 7Appendlx 8 Appendlx 9Appendix 1oAppemix 11 Appendlx 12 Appendlx 13 Appendlx 14 Appenix 15Appendix 16Appendix 17BihliographyPusiriciial occurrcncc of NAE (nnscnanls English Syllliblr:StructureDistribution ol' Vowclil Before Num] Cqnggnmus Cumlnunly Rcduced Function Words Consirlinls cn Cnntraciion ind Blending Irregulzr Verbs in EnglishTensvLax Vowcl Aliiemaliuns i. n Stressed Syllablcs of Base Forms and Derived WordsConsultant tener-Sound Ctrrrexponderices and Variations (including dignlphs)sysicmatic Ditrerenoes in liritish and American Spelling Prole Qucstionnaiw Iliied it UCLADiagnostic Passage anrl Accent checklistACTFL Fronciency tiuidelines fur Speakingspeech lntclligihility/ communieahiiity [ndcx ror Dercrihing speech and Fvalunting lts impact rin communicationSpeaking Feriunnance scale for UCLA oral Pmciency 'l'esl fur Nunnative TAsSelf-Evaluation Form:Interview Role PlaysAnswer Key for 'on the cassette ExercisesAuthor Index Subject Index373 375 376 377 380 382 387389395 396 398 40D 403404405407 420427 429Figures Figure Ll Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 Figure 3,5 Figure 3.a Figure 3.7 Figure 3.8 Figure 3,9 Figure 1.10 Figure 3.1| Figure 3.12 Figure 3.13 Figure 3.14 Figure 3.15 Figure 3.16 Figure 4,1 Figure 4.2Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5 Figure 4.o Figure 4.7 Figure 4,8 Figure 4.9 Figure 4.10 Figure 4.l l Figure 4.12 Figure 4.13 Figure 5.1Figure 5,2 Figure 5.2 Figure 5,4 Figure 5.5 Figure 6.1 Figure 5.2 Figure 6.3 Figure 7. VFIGURES ANDTABLESwall chart l rur English ha a second Languagesugiltal lieclion lliagrarnArticulaiion of lvlCalendars for guirlell praclice activitysentertocs rm- conrmlliud practice wilh la! 'nte Family nee' fur guideri practiceshopping interview tor guided practiceGuided practice iiclvity iiir ln/and (u/ Minimal pair Listening dlscrlmlrlalion with pictures Listening rliicriniination enercisc fni arpiriuionAnalysis activity 1er locaiing ilap [r1lniormation gup activity for praciicing ap lr]Minunnl pair cunirnsis of mil cuumnnntsstory activity lor praclicing sylluhic luSlury activity for practicing syllahic luiMini-dialogues i'm pniuicing syllubic iniPtrraible wnlbinations Tur threectrnsunant initial clusters The NAE vowcl quadrant and soginal section oi the muulhA comparison of tongue ind yaw poiitumr lor trnrn and hack voweliTensc veran lax vowcls ln NAEGlide rnovernent lor the NAE diphuiongtTonguc and iaw mnvements ici / oy/ , / aw/ , and loy/Fashion of the unreduccd versus reduced vtrweli workshctts witir minimal pair aentenccsPmnunciation Bingo' card fm practicing el vs.Iar/lnfonnaiion gap exercise to discriminate herwecn lo] and w worksheetr far communicutive activity wiih intcrjectioni sample Hiinginan drawingwertshect with template ior writing liulcrickscomputer dating:ey/vs.c/vs.Iae/ Model workxlieets ror inromiaiiori gap nciivily witn cardinal numbersModel grid for 'Shop Till You Drop' activitystudent worksheeis far presenting patterns in connected speech Ficture grid activity for guided practice in linkingsample drawing lor ccmmunirative practice wiih initnretions lllustrations fur Spot the Dicterencc'worksheet rn guided practice with iinonatron contours worksheet tor guided practice with Hills Like white Elcplianis'Liirerring discriminatiori exercise for can vs.can't for young or preliemle learners43 51 54 58 586|70 7173 74 76 78 79 B0 86 95 9596 101 101 109 ll7 H8 lll 123 [25 128 128 149150l7l l7l 183 214 216 131VII 6. vttt T Figures and lahtssFigure 7.2 Figure 7.3 Figure 7.4 Figure 8.1 Figure 3.2Figure 3.3 Figure x4 Figure lts Figure 8.6Figure l o.l Figure 10.2 Figure 10.3 Figure 10.4 Figure lU.5Figure l 2. lTablesTable ll Table 3,2 Table 3.3 Table 3.4 Table 3.5 Table 4.!Table 4.2 Table 4.3 Table 4.4 Tabla 4.5 Tuble 4.6 Table 4,7 Table 4,8 Table 5.] Table 7.1Table 1 l. l Tabla 12.1Student wurkshccl lar excrcis:un reduced onns Student workshccl fur l cloze diciation pnclicing ltumophonos Examples uf false scgnienlalion w .. .. _ _ otksheel for predtcnng pronunclntlnn of -. r endmgs m song lyrics23:11 Sql-way Clean S-m :guided practice withW rksh r f ' ' - .in :0 mi:predtcttng prohuncrauon of past-lente 4d ettdtngs'sluppysiruourln Nll':rien -.rwnrirsheetrorpiedici | ' r , .1d emm n _ diamg:vmmlncu un o Past tenso Ind udrectrve for controlled anti cornrnunicetive practice with 'Discussion wheel' for uency practiceValue Topics' board gnrne for ilueney ymclioeSnmlrlc potter toi Personal introduction Collagecollege tor 'shopping for Sounds' activityExnmnlcs ot comics that provide focus points rar teaching pronunclutionuluan-ulod story sequcnpe to pmjnpt 1M 3pm, The English comanlmlxClassification of NAE consonanr phoneinesStudent works-Intel:Classication of NAB Consultant phonztnex mmm qualines ot / l/ iii NAEcoosonanir iii nnil positionA comparison of teme am!ln vnweLs in NAE Classication of vowelsContinuum of lux vowelsCtmtlmurm of Icnsc vowelsDistinctionr between M-lesa and lr/ cnlorgg WWE Degrecs of nasalizuiinn in NAEworlrsheet tor ute game 'categories'List cr vowels with communicative meaning in English content words versus hrnctian warnrSignalsofintonationboundanes eld Gil ' (l983)exampl: s E m MTeaching pmnnnciation:Metltodulngical variation 0m!presenluion evaluation funn235 239250 2512532542632155292 293 294 301 30234739 47 49 6B 75 97 103 104 104 D5 108 ll5 122 153 226326 357PREFACEwe have written Teaching Prorirurciatian:A Reference/ ar Teachers nftsrigtish to Speaker:a/Other Language:to serve as the core of a comprehensive course in pronunctation pod- agogy designed to provide FsuEFl.teachers with the following:(l) an overview ur the issues involved in teaching pronunciation,such ns how pronunciution has been viewed rrorn various rnethodological perspectivet and what we know about the atxiuisition nt sec- nnd language phonology;(2) a thorough groundirig in the sound system ot North American English (NAE),including both the acgrnental und suprascgniental aspects;(3) insight into the wll s in which this sound system intersects with other skills and areas of language,such as listening,intlectional mnrpholcgy,and orthogrnphy,(4) a trameworit tor developing teaching techniques,ranging from xlruclurod exercises tu marc holistic und communicative classroom activities,including alternativo teaching technique - (S) a cussion of options in syllahus design as it rclates to the teaching otpronunc lion;and (o) u treatment of prnnurtciation diagnosis und assessment measures. Based on our uyllectivc experience at UCLA (hoth in teaching pronunciation to asuma.suidcnts antl in training prospective teachers in practical phoncties),we address the current dohatc on teaching segmcntnls versutl suprnscgmentalx.und suggest wayi in which teachers can dcal With both of these critical arcas of the sound system within a cam- munioative teaching framework that includes the aocuracy-uency continuuin.Accompanying each chapter ore discussion questions anti exercise:that encourage current nntl prospective teachers to hiing their own personal language leaniiiig and teaching expe- rience to bear on the topic at hand.The cassette that aocompanies the text provides oppor- tunities to develop transcription skills.to assess ESL/ EFL leamers prununcitition,ahtl to develop ntiginal exercises and activities. The volume is organiuad as fullows:ln Par!l we cover the history of and research an teaching pronunoiatioii (Chapters l and 2),ln Part 2 we present the sound system or North American English and some hasic teaching techniques hy tocusing first on the consonants (Chapter 3),next the vowela (Chapter 4),then rhythtn,stress,and adjustments in connect ed speech (chapter 5).and finally prorninenee and intonation at the discourse level (Chapter 6).In Part 3 we address the intersectiun of the NAE sound system with other areas of the language,such as the listening sltill (chapter 7),morphological inrlectitrns (chapter 8),and orthography (Chapter 9).Part 4 deals with issues or implementaron here we treat altemative teaching techniques (chapter 10),the place ot preriunciation in cur-riculum design (Chapter 11),and techniques and tools for the assessment of pronunciotion (chapter 12). We have used the tnaterial n this text to train prospective ESL/ EFL teachers who have already taken at least one introductnry course in linguistics.Thus Chapters l and 2 presuppese soine of the more basic intonnation presented in detail ln Chapters 3-6. For teacher trainers whose students have no print linguistic or phonelic preparation,we sug gest starting the course with Fart 2 and then having students read run 1 either atter Pan 2 m after Par!3.It has been a long but enjoyahle process for us to collaborate on this course text.We hope that you and your students will find it useful and that you will share your commentsand suggestions with us.Marianne celoeMureiu Donna M.Brinton Janet M.Goodwinlx 7. WCKNOWLEDGMENTSThis iexl would not exist without the inttnettse cncourugcment which we received along the way from our cdiionr at Cambridge U triveraity hasta.ln paniculat,we owe a great debt (o Ellen Shaw,who iniiiulcd the project;to Mary vaughu.who was ittotdinately support- ivc and patient throughout the manuscripfs extended birlhiilg proocssz' and Colin Hayes.who onoouraged our errorts rrom the beginning.For the production phase wo acknowledge the excellent assistance of Suzelle Andr,Sandra Graham,and Olive Cullen. Our team writing effort war angmenied by the cnotmons contrihutirrns or an anony- mous reviewer anti Wayne Dickerson.hoth uf whom not only provided iiisiglitful critiqucr of the entire rnrtnutcripi but also reconceptualiyal and rewordcd lcngthy passages for its.Wc also received extremely hclpful comments on the tnanusoript from Janet Anderson Hsieli and Dick Sutet,who Caught many inconsistencias and provided much-needed encouragcmcnt along the Wily.Many or our cocagucs gruciously responde-d to portions of the manuscripL lcnding their experiise lo correct lneccuraciea.esh oul examples,anti pro- vide reference sources.ln particular,we wish lo llighlight the contriburions of the lilllow- ing individuals:peter Ludcfogcd and Patricia Kealing (Cituprer 3, Appendix l);inhn Esling,George Yule.and Juiletta Shakhbagova (Appendix l);John schurnann (chapter 2);Patsy Duff (Chapter 4);Laura i-lahu,and Greta Levis (Chapter s);Linda Jcilscn (Appendix l3);Thor Nilson (Appendix l and (zhttpters 3, 4, 7, and 9);Laurel nt-inton (chapter 5 and Appendix s);and Francisco Gomes de Matos (general comments). wc ale indeotod to the wodr of several graduates of the Applied Linguistics Program at UCLA whose doctoral Work we draw on specifically,Bob Jacobs,Barbara Bitptixld and Yuichi Todnka.We also consultcd wilh ur were inuenced by numcrous colleagues in construcllng and refining pronunciation activilies.Although it is often difficult to idenri ry the source of activities which we may have acquired during our many cumulativo years of teaching,we spccifically want to thank the following individuals (and apulngim lo those whom we muy have unintenonally untitled here):Bill Actan,Indy Gilbert,Joan Motley,Rita Wong,Minha chan,Pat otogan,Susan Stem,Jim Pllrpura,Kari Lisovsiry.Georgiana Famoaga.Rnann Altman,Judith Weidman.Nitza LIado-Tones,Patrice Dally,Lorraine Megowan,Ann Aguirre,Lief Nielsen,end Kathy Jensen-Gabriel. In eld lesling the manuscript.we received much helpful feedback from our TESL and ESL students.we panicuiarly wish to acknowledge Andrea Kahn,Gabriela Solomon Tetsuo Harada,Linda Choi,Denise Babel.Bob Agajecninn,and Cara Wallis. For assistance in preparlng the cassette.wc are indebted to the UCLA Phonetics Laboratory and especially to Henry Tehrnni and all of the ESL slildents who graciously wnsented to be taped for this project. we would he remiss if we didn't mention other fctnns of support which we received.For their artworlr assistance,we are grateful to Cathy Johnson,Sasha Mosely,ind Motoko Ueyaina For access to reference sources.we thank susan Ryan,formerly of Cambridge University Press.And above all we are indebted to Sandy Wallace tor gracionsly inputting ponions of me manuscript and assisting with pennirsionr. Neadless to say,we have appreciated the patience atid encoumgement of friends and family throughout the writing of this book. Although su nit-my knowledgeable colleagues have generously given us detailed and exrensive feedback,we know that there will be inevitable errors or shortmmings in nu undertaking of this scope and size.Any xuch residual errors are solely our responsibility. xl 8. TRA YSound Exnmp| es soundl.me consonants af nora.American English' W hoy.cab 13. y2- / p/ En,un ,44 m3- d/dos.best is.[h]4' V tm.cal 16_ m5- Ig/Eu,ha;7_ dy3- lk/szttt.bag 1 a.W- V/xtew.love 19. n/ X- f!s11. nte m,m, 9 V me.bame 21. /1/ill).IBI min.bath 22. lr].z/(pu,gm .234 M, 12. ls/m,bug 24. / hw/17- Y/ '- the vovtels of North American EnglishSlressed Vnwels1' / Y/Pg.fggt 34 mw2 N Pm.t 9, M3- ley/pm,fghe 0_ mw, 4' 9/ peu.red u.[ay]2- W pan.fsd 12. / aw/ - lol mu.doll 13. [ay/ 7. lol imei'.talk 14, A/ Unstressed Vowels 15' h'16. la/focus.allow g17 .lar/falhg,bittg m:2C18 / n/ any.meter 214 W Other frequentty used symhols nd rtiacritul markings [? ] glntml smp han23- [C'} aspirated consonant time.pick,kitchenM' m WWW or dark / l/ hall.told.al25- [r] {lap allophone ligle.bhtter {um26- [V: . C2] lengthening pg,ma,En;night27- [C1 unrelcased consonant but,ag JE28. {C1 syllahic consommt tu,ddfbamcN h .La: lzttalztgnsonants and also as vowel glidesExample: leis_u_re,beige m),diLhhis,ahead moda.watch joy,huge me.seem no,sug Sigur),bang long,ful_l run.catwin,away men.ma:xau,solapela,m Put ft P4191, stew pine,ght pgunll,fa_u1 pgise,fo_il pum,cu:land.thirdmusgo,coping hotel,nanu_w into,igm PART | PRONUNCIATION INSTRUCTIONIN PERSPECTIVE ters,we provide a historical overview ofhow pronuncation has been treated in lan- guage teaching over the past hundred years:the types of teaching approaches and techniques that have been used as well as the degree of phonetic analysis or explanation that teachershave provided leamers.The second chapter sur- veys the theories and ndings from studies focusing on the acquisiton of the sound systemI n the rst of these two introductory chapof a second language.We then show how this information can help teachers better understand the pronunciation acquisition process und thus be in a better position to sct instructional priori- tics.Together,these two Chapters prepare the reader for the specic descriptive and pedagogi- cal information presented in Parts 2 and 3 of this volume as well as the problems of imple- mentation that We discuss in Part 4. 9. CHAPTER lThe History and Scope of Pronunciation Teachingn h s - .the?WMV] 'f language teaching.Kelly ([969) dubs pronuncistion and nguim have Smied orelgn angsage leachmg.He shows lhal Wcslcm philologists __ _ t lzrammar an Vocabulary much longer than pronunciarion.For egtwzrpmummn ar un:vocalrilrybglavc been much better understand by most language uneru on,w c to be ded ' beginning Ohhelwctih emm San slu l systemattcally shortly before the Th f Id f od:' machi;prgncianlarag leechtng has developed two general appmaches to the tic approach Bernie the late en lnmnirvymnauve appmml and a) a' analycrnu' sionally supplemented b thenltnellent Www only (h?nm imprima Was md ' h _ _ Y eno er s or tcxthook wnters tmpressiottistic (and often p nnencdlly uiaccurate) ohscrvatrons about sounds hased on ortlrography (Kelly 1959) An l the-l tam.. .. ._ - dinsmi ' 'i m iww a m- i!romano ' _ e arget language without the intcrventiun u!any cxplic n,tt also presupposes the avadahiliry of good models tu listen to a 'bi1i ty that has been enhanced by the availability tirst of phrurrtgiaph records ihenpottap;recorders and language labs in the mid-t t th tu .Vidmmetws and compa dim wen te cen ry.and more recently of andlo- and A' namas-wn:DPPmach.on the other hand utilizea nf - .v ti and as a phonettc alphabet,arriculatory desetiptions,charts of the verr-piintis 35x23: infuti, dth. -l me on an o er alds to supplernent lrsterung,milano,md pmduum t explici_ y t orms the leather of and focuses attention on the sounds and rhythms of the tar lll-tn guage.This approach was developed to complement rather than lo replace the initive- tmitative approach,which was typicall t ' ed ti.- .. ' me phonec fanatica y re aut as e practice phase used tn tandem WllhWhen we look at the various language teachnig methods th tha h d , cy throughout the rwentieth century,we must ackttowledge tbn!llalem ti;riietltcorgse Cunit Gmmmar Translation and ending-based aypmaches in which the teaching of mc as m .1 l .l l - _ pronuncia-iidirtritiziiziszi:m' wwmvrvws-m ela _ _ ' V e Inguage,and oral communication in the tar get guagc ts not a primary instrucnonsl objectivc.In the following overview of ma, ods we focus on those methods and .. nuncialion is a genuine concern.aponh fm which me mhmg md lam p The History and Scope uf Pmmtnciatlcn teachingDIRECT METHOD AND Mon:RECENT NATunALlsrtc APPROACHESln Direct Method foreign language instmction,which nl gilinod populatity tt the late sous and early l9tl0s,ptonuncialion is tsught through intuitiott und imittttioti;students mirate a lnodcl the teacher or a mwrding snd do their best (0 approximate the model through lmilation and repelition.This instrucclnal method was gmundcd on observntinns cl children learning their nrst language and of children and adults leaming foreign lan- guages in nottinxtructionst settings.Silccchsots to this approach are the many soeciillod ntnurallslle methods.including comprchension methods that devote a period of learning solely to listening before any speaki g is allowed.Extimples include Ashens (1977) Total Physical Response and Krashen and 'l'encll's (i983) Natural Approach.Proponenls main- tain that the initial focus on listening without pressure to speak gives the leuntcrs the opportunity tu tntcrnaljze the target sound system.When lcarners (lu speak later un,titoir prnnuncialion is supposedly quito good despiie their never having received explicit pm nunctution instruction. THE Rzronn MOVEMENTnro first linguistic 0| analytic contribution to the teaching of pmnilnciallon emergod in the lli90s as part of the Reform [Movement in lalignlagc teaching.'ntir movement was inn ertccd grcatly by phoneticians such as lletrry sweet,Wilhelm Vitor.und Paul Pussy,who fomted the lntcnialional Plwlletlc Association in 1886 and developed the International Phonerle Alphabat (In).ms alphabcl resulled from the ertablishment of phonetics tu a science dedicated lo describittg und analyziitg the sound systems of languages.A phonet- ic alphnbel made it xxshlhlc to accurately represent the sounds nt imy llingutige because.(or the first time,there was tt consistent onc-to-one relationship helwwn a written symbol and the sound it rcpresented. The phclnetcians involved in this inlcmatlonal organization,many of whom had also had experience teaching foreign languages,did much to inuence modern language mach ing by specically atlvocating the following notions and practices: - nte spoken form ot a language is primary and should be tnught first, - The ndings or phoneiics should he applied to language teaching. - Teachers must have solid training in phoneties. - tearners should be given phonetic training lo estahlish good speech hahits. THE l940s AND l950s Many histurians of Lanpagc teaching (e. g.,nowatt 1984) believe that the Reform Movement played a role in the development of Attdlollnguttllutt in the United Suites and of the Oral Approach in Britain during the l940s and l950s.In holh the Audiolingual and Oral Approach classrooms.pronuncintion is,very imponant and is taught explicitly from the start.As in the Direct Method classroom,the teacher (or a recording) models a sound,a word,or an utterance and the students intitste or repeat.Hnwever,the teacher also typi- cally makes use oiiutonnatidn trotn phonelics,such as a visual transeription system (mod- ied [PA or som:other system) or charts that demonsmle the arlicillation of sounds.Furtherrnore,the teacher often uses a technique derived from the noliort of contrast in structural linguistics:the tnlnlmal pair dntl dt-ills that use words that differ hy a sin- gle sound in the same position.This technique,based on the concept of the phoneme as 10. c>. _Pronunciation lnstructun in Perspectivamuurn ' ll d ' - 4 .. .dsd y?sound (Bloorneld 1933),ls used for both listening practice mi word nriusA B fly!I/Sheep ship green m1,least list meet mm dead didSantana DrlllsI.Synhgmutll:rtrllls (centran within I sentence) Don't Q in that Lai.Did you nt lg get the 1gp)n- Pilisnmic drllls (centran across two sententes) Don't ip on the oor.Don!sl_eep tm the oor. Ls that a black sheep!ls that a hlaclr ? Using such minimal pain the teache first has th tud erige ' t * n en susl.solitaria sffii;r d 'de if th - ' - ' . o ecr ey are the same or different.Altemsuvely,the tcachgr img) d a wum o, ingsmud either lrst A or list B and ask the student to identify which sound (A ar B) isListeningl.sarna or different?(shup,rherp;ship,Jhegp) 2. Am B7 (sh ship;sheep) Such listening discrlminatiarl practice is followed b ' - .y guldcd oral prodlmlln practice_ 'Wing n teacher modehsnrdenls pnscnce lists A and B first ln rsolatron (l, e.,reading list A und then un a).then in cono-asi (Le.reading across columns A and s)Guided Onl Productionl,Read down column A,tiren column n (shezp grzcn etc ) 2. Read across the cohnnns (sharp,ship,etc. )Finally.the teache asks individual smdents to read the lists without n model. THE I96os[u the 1950i the Cognlthre Approach,inuenced by transromrati l- t 9mm,(Chomsky 1959. 1.965) and cognirive psychology (Neisser 1967),.,mk, mi hecho he r - .. .s lque cin rdnptcd lo all mrnrrnal pair uontnsts lnvulvrng vowel or corrarrurrrl discnm' harian. The History and Scope of Pronunciation Yeachnggoverrled behavior rather lun habit formation.lt deemphasizcd pronunciation in favor ofar and Vocabulary because.its advocates argued,(l) natvelike pronunciation was un tlnrealistic objective und could not be achieved (Scovel i969);and (2) time Would be better spent on teuching mole lcamable items.such lis gtarnmatical slruclures and words. THE l91osAs can be seen from the pmceding discussion,the language teaching profcssion changed positions many times with respect to the teaching of pronuncintion.Various methods and approsches placed this skill either at the forefront of instruction,as was the case with Reform Movement practices und the Audinlingual/ Oral Method,or in the back wings,as with the Direct Method and namralistic comprehension-bascd approaches,which operat- ed under the assumption that errors in pmnuncihtian (and other errors,for that maltcr) were part of the natural acquisition process and would disappear as students gaincd in communicativc prociency.Other methods and approaches either ignored pronuncialion (e. g.,Grammar Translation,reading-based approaches,and the Cognitive Approach) ar laught prtrnunciation through im ation and repelition (Direct Method),or through imita tion supported hy analysis and linguistic information (Audlolinguallsm). The methods that came lo attention during the 19703, mich as the Silent Way and community Language Learning,continued to exhibil interesting dirrerenccs lu me way rhcy deall with pronuncislion.This aspccl oi both methods ls described in the iollowing two sections. THE SILENT WAVLike Audiolingualisn-l,the Sllenl Way (Gattegno i972, 1976) cart be characterized hy the attention paid tn acculacy of production of both the sounds und structures ofthe target lau- guage from the very initial stage of inslruction.Not only are individual sounds slressed irorn the very first day nt a Silent way class,but learrlers attention is ocusetl on how words combine in phrase: on how blending,stress,and inronation all shape the produc- tion of an utterurrce.Proponents claim that this enables Silent Way leamers to sharpen their own une!criteria for accurate production.The difference between Alldiolingualism md the Silent Way,ltowever,is that irl the Silent Way leamer attention is facllsecl on the sound system without having to learn a phoneric alphahet or o hcdy cl explicil linguistic iufonnation. How does the silent Way work in terms of teaching pronuncialiorl?'the teacher,nue to the methods name,speaks as little as possible,indicaung through gesnrres what students should do.This includes art elabomte system in which teachers tap out rhythmic patients with a pointer,hold up their tlngcrs to iudicare the number afsyllables n a word or tu indi- Cate strased elements,or model proper positiouing of the articulalors by painting lo their own lips,teelh,or jaw.The Silent way teachers also use several indispensable tools oi the trade such as a mundcolor chan,the Fidel charts,word charts,and mloled ms. The sound-color ehrrrr was created by Gatregno lo bypass the eat (Gartegnc 1935).This large rectangular wall chart contains al] the vowel and cnnsouunts sounds of a target language in small colored rectangles.In the upper half of the chart are the vowela The pri- mary yowels are lepresented by one color each,the diphthongs by two colors.The conso- nants an:located in the bottom half of the chan,and are divided from the Vowels by a solid line.Colors for consonants are assigned randornly,although there is consistency in color nom language to language when sounds oyerlap. See the excellent volnmes hy Blnir (1982),Luthiers-Freeman (i986),Ind Stevlck (1980) tor further details bout all aspects rri these rnettrcdr,and not just their Lreutment of pronuuclaorl.wi tools ue available imrn Educacional Solutions in New York,the late Caleb Grllegulfs cmrtpiny. 11. Pronunciation Instruction ln Perspettivea rod s -s blue green yellow black brown take md give as la it and noi buck here her is the them two him nn me orange the are one he another these white put end too his Flgure l. l word Chun l tor English ss a second Language (Reproduoad with permission from c.tiittegno,Teuchlrtg farelgrl languager n xchaulr:m Silent way.New York:Educational solutions,i972)_ The set of rra-l wall drum contains all the possible spelling patlems for each sound m the language.Each letter or combination of lcrters is color coded;Sounds that are pra- nounceld alllte are colored alike.Because of the complex nature of English spelling.eight charts in the set represent sound-opening correspondencia. l The large colored word charts (l to 12; see Figure l.l) are similar in size to the sound- co or chart.they reect and reinforee the system used in the sound-color chart. The wall charts contain cumrnon words of the target language,along with some words ut tarian lo the method (eg,tod).These ure grouped liernnnticnlly in a way that allows the leader (teacher or pioeient student) to 'silently diclale' or Lap out phrases,which are then prac- tieed orauy and/ or written down as a diclatiml.Far example,the class might take several steps to progress from ' rake a blue rod' to Take a blue rod and a mi rod.Give the blue one to him and the red one to her. ' , The rural tool is s set or small colured blocks nf wood or plastic of vsuying lenglhs with ill red rods being the same size,all white the same size.and so on.The rods are used for mny purposes,but when the focus is pronuncialion,the rods can he used to build and visua y demonstrale lntonatlon patterns.and to indicate the diiering prununciations of morphological endings (past tensa.plural marker,etc). In one Silent way lerson that we observed,the students were foreign-bum profession- als,advanced ln English but with heavy uccentx.As un accent reduction exercise,the instructor was helping students io introduce themselves in a way that would be intelligible nd acceptnhle to nativo Fziglish speakers.They rnst practiced giving their names (e g My name is Chrislus Eliopolos') by placing the coloted rods on the table in front of then;in a conguration that approxirnated the stress.iritonation,and hloriding ofthe phrase.This visual conguration was adjusted ss students discoveted ways in which they could produce a mote lntelligrble form of the phrase.For example.contmcting name and is to produce name tr was achieved by moving the small white md epresertting i:directly next to the red rod representtng name.The teacher rernainod very much in the background,and there was intenso peer assistanceboth ui monitoring the utterancea und suggesting alternativos.Once a high level of mtelligilirlrty had been attainod for the nrst phrase,students then pncriced their mfessions (eg.Tm a commercial real estate broker') in the same martner.Finally.they combined the two phrases and introduced themselves to uir peets. The Silent Way is better understood if experienced rather than read about.since any description falls to capture actual immer engagetnent.The method appears to have a spa Fidel Wall chan is nat mpmditoed in color.some nfthe iinpomnt elites to ptonunciltzion unsw:thank Judith Weidunnn for su ' l observ d deo - hgecmmafuclAxmmmngm D enla vt tapeherlh classnlthekmcumnThe History and Scope nf Pronunciation Teachingcial focus en teaching pronunciation,and many language educators agree that the princi- ple of sound-color wrrespondence,which the Silent Way invokes,provides learners with an inner resource to be used' (Slevick 198D:46),which helps to establisll a true feel for the language.its dicrion.rhythm,and rnelody' (Blair l99l:32). COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEAININGRooted in the humanatlc client-cemered learning exemplied by Carl Rogers (l9Sl),Community Language Lnarnlng (CLL) is a method developed by Charles A.Curran (1906) for teaching second and foreign languages.A typical lesson in a CLL classrotnn proceeds as follows,Students sit around a table with a tape recorden a key |00| of the ntethod.The counselor (le,the teacher) stands behind one of the students,with hands on the studenfs shouldm.Alter speaking reassuringly,the counselor asks the student to say something in the native language he or she wishes u) be able to say in the target language.This utter- aitoe la then provided hy the teacher in the target language,who takes care lo phrase it idiotnatically.The oounselor provides the phrase (broken into chunlta for ease of repeti tien).the student repeats,and once the student ean produce the whole utteranoe fluently,il is recorded on tape. ln the next phase of the lesson.the utteraiices are played hack and students match the new target language with the word-for-wonl translation provided by the counselor.Next,the teacher aslta if the snidenta wish to further practice the pronunciation of any of the new utterunces they have leamed.li they do.the counselor again stands behind the anident who requests funher practice and engages in a technique known as human computer.The counselor/ computer can he turned on or ol at will by the student.who can request the con-ect prtmuneiation of a given phrase or piece of a phrase from the computer.This provides the raw data for the student lo mimic 2nd repeal until he or she is aatised with the pronuncintion. several tools and techniques are critical to the treatment ol pronuneiation in CLL.First.the audioiape recorder not only csptuies what is said in the smdent-gerlertcd uner- allces but also provides a way for students tn distance themselves from what was said so they can focus on how it was said and compare their pronunciation with thai ot the 0mm selor.second,lhe human computer technique,which gives no overt conection of pronun- ciution,allows the student to initiate pronunciatiou practice by selecng the item(s) to practice and deciding the amount of repetition needed.ln this way,students are able to appruximate the target prvnunciation to the extent that they desire.Thua the teaching approach is intuitive and intitalive aa in the Direct Method,but its exact coment and the extent to which practice takes place are controlled by the immer/ client rather than the teacher or textboolt. PRONUNCIATION TEACHING ToonThe Communkmhe Approach.which took hold in the 19805 and is currently dominant in language teaching,holas that sittce the primary purpose of language is communication,using language to contmurticate should be central in all classroom language inatnlction.'his tocus on language as communication brings renewed urgency to the teaching of pro nuneiation,since both empirical and anecdotal evidence indioates thai there is a threshold level of pronunciation for nonnntivo speakers of English:if they fall below this threshold level,they will have oral cmnnurlication problems no matter how excellent and extensive their control oEngljsh gramntar and vocsbulary might be.(For research supporting this claim,see l-liuotolis and Bailey 193o). l'he same piirltciple could,ot course,he u limitntion tar those 10% of mile turna:who ire color blind. 12. En Pmnunciatinn lnstmctiorl in PetspsctiveMotley (1987: 2) suggcsts that there un:currently ut least four groups of English lan guagc lconicrs whose otal communication needs mandato a high level or intclligihility nnd therefore require special assistance with pronunciation: l.fnreign tenching assistantsantl sometimes roreigtr fnculty in eollegcs ttnd univer- sities in English-spuakiug countries2. foreignrbom technical,business.anti professional employees in liusiness and indus- try in English-spettlting countries3. intemationnl business people and diplomats who need te use English as their wetlt- ing lingua franca4. refttgees (adult and adult-seem) in resettlemettt and vocational training programs wishing lo relocate in Fnglish-spenleing countriesTo Morley's tout categories we should add at least two mote groups: s.teachers of English as a roreign language who are not native speakers of English and who expect to scrvc as the majnr model and source ot input in English tor their studenlso.people in non-English-speaking countries working as tour guides,waitets,hotel per sonncl,Customs agents,and the like,who use English for deallng with visitors who do not speak their languageThe goal of teaching pnmuncitltion la such leamcrs is not to make them sound like native speakers of English.With the exception of a few highly gilletl und motivzted indie vidunls.such ti goal is unreaslic.A marc modos!and realitltic goal is (D enable learncrs to surpass the threshnld level so that their pronuncialion will not detraet from their ability to commutticate. Having established that intelligihle prouunctation is onc of the necessary compi?nents oi oral communication,the next issue is methodological:l-tew con teachers improve the ptouunciation el uninlellgible speakers ot English so that they become intelligible?This is a problem rot communieative Language Teaching,since proponents ot this appmach have not dealt adequately with the role or pronunciation in language teaching,nor have they developed an agrt-ed-upon sel of strategies for teaching pronunciatitm cmnmunicalvely, We can begin to answer the question of how ln teach pmnunciation ns part of the commuuieative Approach by teviewing the kinds of techniques anti practice materials that have craditionally been used ind are still being used to teach pronunciation.'he fol- lowing is a rairly comprehensive list: l.Listen and imitale:A technique used in the Direct Method in which students listen to a teacher-provided model and repeat or imitalei This technique has been enhanced by the use of tape record/ ers,language labs,and video tecordets. 2. Phanetic training:Use of articulatory desetiptions.nrtieulatory diagranis,and a pho- nctic alpllabet (a technique from the Reform Movement,which may involve doing phonetic transcription as well as leading phonetically transcribed text). 3. Minimal pair drills:A technique introduced during the Autiiolingual era to help stu- dents distinguish between similar and prohlemntic sounds in the target language thtough listening diserimination and spolten practice.Minimal pair drills typically 'Su celceMutcla (1983) and Pica (1984) tor sotne ot the earliest practical suggestions fvr teaching ptonuneintinn cmmnuninatively. rrhis includes,tor example,having tt spanish spetltet imilnr.the accent alan English speaker in spanistt in order to then transfer that accent' tn English. -,Developmelllal appraximrltian dt-ills;A technitluThe history and Scope uf Pronunciation teaching- l d levcl tlrills and then move en to scntcnce-level dtills (both Parndis- begin wtt l war -ntatic and synlagmatic).. .l m_ ,. - . 1972, l975b) attempt to make minima p mnuahzefj mimi? !tzilciich lzrit sms ol mennitrglessttess and lock or tltills respuvnl w . g' h th ttin (e, g.,a blacksnlitlt hhovr context.In the technique.the teacher ctztahlts es e sc g _ y cdmm mima .,1 mms key vocnbulary,students are then llum P mi: Wlill the appropriate meaningfnl mspnnw (a ' b sen nsentencc stem Tllc blauksmith (n.hits l h,hearts) tltc horsestioe. cued student resnonsaa.with the hummer /b.in the 'B-teachers description of how stinttds am vmdnw '13 r charts Fidel wnll charts,rods.vien- mm-props realia etc.These devices tire also uwd to cue Pmduvm f m mg mmds ' V ,. ,. - n- t 'cs tot native speakersTonga:lwlsltn:A teeltmqne 'nm spmh_'' S 5g(e_g. , She aells scttshells by the seashote.tVisual adx. Etttiancetncnt ot the audiovisual aids such a:soumlnolne suggesteil by first-language acqnir_ l ., z topico-atte the steps that m 5mm m whifh sclflifvllTltlllfv rzciilcitam sounds in their litst 'MW EEIS'SP' m ' - - ' {w/ befnte/ r/ or/ y/ - .* 1 En hsh often atan! , me be ore . n n 5- ords with initial Iw/tn / y/ and then shin to Ir/or 11/.resllecvely:by ptououncing w lw/> lr/lvl -* V wng ms Y witch rich yo' L wipe ripe young '18_ .- 4 i;xafan:A technit 539 8. Practice af vawel shts tdglif Ixfyyte i);1968) i mi wm] imemsdme url 'f gmemive p m o - l b d ture ot vowel and stress advanced leamers,The teacher 901m5 m' 'e n l m.. rt texts led words tn ratse awateness,sentences and shoshifts in ctyrnologicnlly N?V . d d m1 me mmalnu that contain both members ot s pair muy be Pro e a PVowel rhifl:mime (long i) mim (mm i s t context street mlmes cen ntimic the gesrures ot vnssersby- en rice . Stress shift:PHOmgIaph l>nT0Gmvhy h,ty good at Senlence mrltut:l can tell from these photosraph-H 13'? 'e 'photography.. d h m .< - _. p sor scripts for learnets to PHWH ' 5' 9. Rendmg alDud/ recltatlon assagennd Mmmm);m technique may of may nmnloud tocusing on stress,timns- .h t mmm ,' - ll urs with gettres t n 8m tttvnlve rttetnortzatton of the text.and it usun Y 06tn lie spokm such as speeches,poetas,playa and .. .muy in Chapters 3 attd 4. mie a wen tcelnunue ts dewnbed mote _ l _ tarot anulan comprehensive treatment ot rtus topic see chapter 9 13. Pronunciation lnstruction in Perspectival0. Recording:af Itarnzrs production:Audio- and videotapes of rehcarscd and spania- neous speeches,free conversations,and role plays.sulrsequent playbhck offers opportunities for feedback from teachers and pcers ns well as for teacher,peer,and self-evaluation. With the exception of the last two techniques listed,we can sec that the emphasis in pronunciation lnstruction has bccn largely on getting the sounds right al the word level dcaling with words in isolation or with Words in vcry controlled md contrived sentencc- level environments. ' Although the last two techniques alluw or practice at thc discourse level,lllc practice material is often fully scripled and sometimes highly contrivtxi.There is thus sume doubt about whether such readingaloud exemises can actually improve u leamcfs pronunciaticln in sponuancous Conversation. when the comnrunicative Approach to language teaching began tu take over in the rnid to late l970s (sec Brumt and Johnson 1979; Widdowson 1978),most of lhe aforc- mentioned techniques and materials for teaching pronunciation at the segmental level were natly rejected on theoretical and practical groundr as being incompatible with teaching language as communication.influenced by the discoursebascd approaehes and materials being used tc reach language communicntively,materials devclopcrs and teachers began to search ror more appropriatc ways to teach pronunciation.They decided that direcring must of their energy to teaching suprasegmental features of language (i. e.,rhythm,stress,and intonatinn) in a discourse context was thc optimal way to organize u shorHct-rn pro- nuncintion course for nunnative speakcrs.McNemcy and Mendelsohn (1992: 186) exprclix this position very clcarly: .a short term pronunciution course should focus rst and forcmost on suprascgmentals as they have the greatest impact on the compr-ehcnsihility oi the lcamews English.we have found that giving priority to the suprasegmental aspects or English not only irnproves lcamers eomprehensihility hut is also less fruslrating for Students because greater change can bc effected in a short time. Today wc see signs that pronunciation instruction is moving away from the segmen- tal/ suprasegrnental debate and toward rr more balanced view.This view rccognizes that both un inability to distingnish sounds that carry a high functional load (such las / l/ in Iirr and / iy/in least) and an lnability ro disringuish suprasegrnenral features (such as atena- tion and stress differences in yes/ no and alternative questions) can have a negative impact on the oral communication and the listening comprehensimt ahililies - of nonnaiive speakers of English.Todays pronuneiation curriculum thus scclrs to identify the most important aspects of both the segrnentals and suprasegmentals.and inlcgntte them apprce priately in courses that meet the needs of any given group of learmcrs. In addition to seg- mcnlal 1nd suprasegmental features 0|' English,there is also thc issue of voice quality sel- ling:that is,each language has certain stercotypical features such as pitch level,vvwcl space,neutral tongue position,and degree of muscular activity that contribute to the over all sound quality or ncccnl' associated with the language. This book represcnts our own best effort to compila a comprehensive volume orr the hacking of North American English (NAE) pronuncialion to nonnalivc speakers ofun classic text at this 'soundsinwnrds' Ippmadt is Nilsen and Nilsen ([973). For a more detailed discussion of recitrdon and rerrlingaloud techniques us they relate ro pronuncia- rionsee chapter la. none ohh:best-known texthooks that rnllaws this line of drinking rs Gilbert (1993). 'see the excellent volume by Marley (i994u) for an overview of recent pranunoirtion research and 17941302M'Chapter 2 reviews what is currently known about voice quality setting in English and some other languages. The History and Scope of Pronunciation TeachingEnglish,As such,the text provides a detailed treatment of both thc NAE sound system anti rounding in clussroom methods and techniques for the teaching of pronunciation.The zcgsiled end result is to equip teachers who use the text (either us a course text ot' reference) with the background and skills to address the pronuneiation needs cf their students.we me mlcctcd the North American variety of English for rather ohvious reasons:(l) rt rep- rexerrls out own variety and that of must cf the teachers we train;(2) rt rs thc tunel variety of the many ESL students living,studying.or working in North Amerlcll;and (3) r s a variety that has gaint-d a strong fouthuld in much ot the world,where bllgllsh rs raught as a foreign tu additional language._ Thu untierlying philoucphy of thix text is simple:Only through a thorough knowl- d e of the English sound system and through farniliarity wilh a variety of pedagogrcal e gin ' ues many of which should be communicatively orierrted.can teachers ciectivtv ice diiisr ihc ronunciatiorr needs ui their students.It is our aim in this- lexl to provide y a h knowledge hasc us well as lo assirt teachers in correctly assessing their letrrners agrrtihunciiltiun needs.iven this knowledge nuse,we helrcvc that teachers can ctlnlillrlc to improve their understanding ol the English sound system anti cxpand upon the insurrctional tools thltt ure now and will become available to arsrrt lcarners rn tlrrsskill urea. EXERCISESKEY CONCEPTS wr-lte n bricfderrnitlon of the following key terms fmm this chapter.For each.grve exam- ples where relevant. intuitivc-rnritahve approach minimlrl pair danalytic-linguistic approach minimal pairs Grammar Trrrnslatlon/Cngmve Approavh rcadingJused rppmaches sua, WayDirect Method snundcolor chartnahrralistie methods Fidel wall chartsThe Rerrm-n Movement community Language Learning lnrematinnal miniserie Alphnbcl h. .. computer Audiolingualism Communicave ApproachINTROSPECTING BOUT Youn Own LANGUAGE LEARNING Think ahout a foreign language that you have leanred in school.l what method (or combination of methods) did your teacher use!How did this method address the skill of pronunciation!2. How successful was tlris method 'm irnprcving your pronunciationl3. Of the methods described in this chapter,which onets) do you believe would help you most with learning pronunciation in a second llmgriage? 14. Pronunciation lnstruetinn in PerspectivaDISCUSSION QUESTIONSMatch the seven methods below with the slnlemenl that best represents their philos ophy of pronunciation teaching.ne prepared n the follow-up discussion to explain the techniques umployed in each method that telate to the teaching of pronuneiation. l.Gamma!Trnnslulion n.Pmlmncizion should be worked on right from the beginning nt langlngt:instruciion.Any words misprouounoed by the student should be cui-teclea by the teacher. 2. Direct Method h.language is nat learned by repearing alter a model.With visual Giles the teacher habs students develop Lltcir own inner Clint-if for mrrculrlesx.hay muxl Lmsl und be responsible lor their own production in the target language. 3. Audlolingual Method e,Oml communication ir not the prirnnry goal ol language instmctlon.lzmfmt:little mention is given lo apeulring,and Ilmctsl none tu pmnuncinun. 4. silent way d.students rhould work with language at the discounie ur suprdsenienlinl level.The ullirnale gon!is comlnilniculion. s.Community language e.Sludenlli will begin to speak when they ure ready. Ieuniing They are expected lo nutre errors in the inilinl rtuge und teachers should be tolcranl uf llteln. s.Total vhyriaal Response r.The prnnuuaiatian syllahua is ximnrily student irtitiated and desigual.Students decide what they Witnl ln pinc- lice and usa the teacher a:a itsonme. 7. crurununieetive Approach g.Teachers provide students with n ntodel for nulvelikle speech.By listening and then irnitating the rnodeler.snidenta improve their pronruicianon. (Adnpled from Ianrsnn Freeman 1935.)compare yaur experience lenming the pronuncialion of another language in a class.mani setting with that or a partner.Ask yotlr partner the following questions: a.What percentage of instructional time was devoled to pmnunciation? h.How would you me the quality of your leachefs pronunciatiun in the target language (eg,nativc/ nativeljke,good,fair,poor)? c.Which ul the following standard techniques for teaching pronunciation did your teacher use.and how? - articulatory cxplanatin (eg.Put your tongue here .. l') - phonetic symbols/ description - inritation and repention - visual airis d.what type of feedback (if any) did you receive regarding your prannnciaon?How much uae waa made of the language laoornrory or audiotapesi i.what else eonuibuted to your learning the prnnuneiation of this language! The History and Scope al Pronunciation YeachlngWhich ntclhod discuased in this chapter seems most suitable for teaching pronuncia- tion in the following simutions: a smdenh won't talkb students won't stop talking e.munolingual class d.rnultiiingual cluaa e large class f.small class g childrenh adultsIN THE CLAssnooM Assurne that you aro teaching pronurtciution.Hero are some common classroom situalions that you rnight encuunter.How would you respond? You rue teaching a elisa using Total Physical Response.one of your arudenh asks:Why aren't we spuaking mote? 'You are using silent Way with a bcginningrluvcl class.one nf your students says:Please correu nie every time I make a unitaria. 'You are using the cnrnrrtunicative Appmach mid doing lots or group work.Your studontr are unhappy with this.one of them raya:'we talk a lot m class but I'm no!learning because my partners accent is worse titan mine. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIESInterview nn ESI.or EFL teacher.Find out which techniques he m she uses to teach pronunciatiou. If you are able to locate a teacher who addresses pronunciation systematicallyt arrauge to visit the class.Make a lis!of the techniques that the teacher employs to reach pmnunclation.can you detennine which atentado) s bang used and What 'te teacher:philoauphy of teaching pronnnclatlon s7Find out more information abmll one method of teaching pronunctatlon.Decide on one technique (e.g. , the human computer).Plan a small demonstration lesson and present it n class. ON THE CASSETTE Listen tn thetpresentation of the trnnseription key as representen on page x.Repeat as needed. 15. CHAPTER 2Research on the Teaching and Acquisition of Pronunciation SkillsILA s outlined in the preceding chapter,the teaching of pmnuncialion has experienced the sumo methodulogical 'swings of the pendulum' (Pratar i991) over the years that have chamctcrizcd the cvolnon of ESL teaching.With l. lIe wide range of curriculum options now available.and the lack of a clear consensus regarding any one best wry ro letwh pronunciarion (Macdnnald,Yule,and Powers 1994),iniornred decisions on thc part of the teacher ur curriculum designer are of paramuunt importance,This chapter deals with several factors tirar underlie the effective teaching oi pronunoiation.These (actora rrrcua an the ieanrer,and involve the effects of age,exposure lo llle target language.amount and type of prior second language inslxuclion,aplilude,altitud:und motivation.and the role of the leilmer's first language un the phonolngical acquisition uf a second language. Together wilh lhe rlslitulional and setiing variables (discussed more fully in Chapter ll),insigllt into these factors helps the leader to identify what is taking place in the complex world of prunuuciation research,to judge the current status of research,and tn notice the relevttnce of this research to teaching. THE LEARNERThe rst issue encountered in desgning the pronuncintion curriculum ill pertlaps the one most irrrnrediately evident the leamers themselves.Ar Wong (19E7h:17) aptly points out.the teaching of pronunciation is not exclusively a linguistic matter, ' and we need to lake into consideralion such factors as ulrr leamers ages,expnsure to the target language,amount and type uf pnur pronunciation instruction,and perhaps most importantly their alutude roward the target language and their runrivation tn achieve intelligihle speech pat- terns in the second language. As teachers rn the pronunciation clasrroorn,we clearly have little control over certain of these factors,auch as our students ages and their amount and type nf prior language instrucrion.However,we need to be aware of how these factors tignre in derennining per.ronnanoe in apeaking English (ur altematively in coloring nrtirurles toward such perim- mance).For those factors that we can inuence (i attitude and mntivation).we need to be aware to what degree they determine the acqu tion of target language phonology.see leather and lrnrer (1991) fur an excellent overview of these topics rrorn the reserrcherr perspec trve.An rlrenrnrive rercheroriented review of relevant research ir Perlrlirlgtun (1994). See Wong (lam) tor r more complete dercription ortlre critical mie these leanrer variables plry rr well rr suggestions fur helping rrurlenu beeorne rrrore inreliigible within r cornnrurucrnve approach. Research an Pronunciation SkillsBefore proceeding to sruational variables.let us then bricy examine each of these leam- er-based factors, AGEGiven the ability ol many adult.second language leamers to attain targellike prociency in morphology and synlax,their apparcnt inahilily to attain nalivelike proficiertcy in pmnun- ciation has often intrigued linguisrs and nonlinguirts alikc.scovel (1969, i988) terms this lack of adult facility irr acquirillg second language pronunciation thc Joseph Conrad phev numenon after thc famous Polishbom author who,despite the brilliant control of the lexis,ryntax,and rnor-phology of English displayed in hrs lilerary works,war unable to reach anywhere near the same levcla of perfectien in iria acquisirion of English plmnalo gy.(Conratfs speech,in fact,remained piinly unintclllglble to English speakers through- out his lite. ) subscribing to the philosophy 'You can't teach rn old dog new tricks. ' many would claim along with scovel that adults are unable to achieve perfect or rargetlike pm- nunciarion in a second language.This view goes hand in hand with thc generally held nation that prepubeswnt children with adequate expostrre to a second language can achieve perfect or near perfect pronunciation with relative case. One line of research that auppona these clairns was originally fonnulated by Penrreld rnd Rubens (1959) and Lenneberg (1967).lhis research porits a period (occutring around pubetty) after which brain lncrrrllzmlon,or the nsrigning of certain functions ro the dir ierent hemisphercs of thc brain,ir cornpleted.The period prior to the cornpletion of later- rlization.called the critical pri-tod,rcprcsenrs the biologically determined period of life during which maxima] conditions for language aoquisition exist.The implications of this theory as lt relates to second language aoqulrition are quito clear.Scovel (i969) and later Krashen (1973) claimed that along with laleraliration (which according to Krashen occurs rs early rs age s) comes an increasing loss of brain plrraticrty,which renders an individual incapable or achieving ndtivelike pronunciation in a second language after pubeny. Nor all second language researchers,ltowever,subscribe to the critical period hypulh- esis.Flege (1981) citei lhe lack of empiricill evidence to xubsrantjiite this claim.contend- ing that neither physiological maruration nor neurological reorganization renders an adult incapable ot Speaking a ioreign language without an accent (p.445).Others (c g ,Brown 1994) would rrrgue that psychomotar oorrsiderations gure into the picture aa well.In other words.while nativelike command of rnorphelogy and syntax n a second language may be the result of plarticity in the central nervous system,the command of second language phonology also invalvcx the neurumusculnr tenim,which may play an even more crucial role in the overall picture (Bob Jacobs.personal communication),Finally,many would argue that the critical period hypothesis overlooka such differences between child and adult setmnd language acquisition as exposure to the target language,linguistic expecta- tiorrs of interlocutors, ego permeability,nttirude toward the second language,and type of mutivntion. Overall,tiren,the inrponance oi the critical period is aotnewhat downplayed today,rnd the claim that adults cannot achieve nalivelike pronunciation in a second language ir not infrequmy counrered with anecdotas about successful adult second language learn ers who have beaten the odrh. ' Scovel (1983),however,argues that the few true suc- cesses are balanceo out by a comparable number of una!tailures (i. e.,the severely autis- tic who never even acqurre their native language).He also suggests that when native speakers conrplirnent a roreigrrer on perfecf:prronunciation there is usually sonic exag- gemtion involved for example.when people say,'rin arnazed that you sound just like a3Fnr a discurriotr o the diiering expcctrtionr that natrve speakers have of children and tllilns learning a serxntd language ste Hrtch,Wagner Gough,rud Peck (1985). IS 16. m.Pronunciation lnstiuction in Perspectivanative speakerl' they really mean.'You speak my language brilliautly especially for a foreignerl'More recently,cognitive seientists have coneemed themselves with the issue of aging ax it relates to brain plasiicity and the creation of perceptual networks.Rarher than posit- ing one critical period for language acquisition,these researchers propuse that there are a number of anduve period:during which different aspects ot language aoquisition occur.Research in the eld further indicate;that children and adults perceive sounds in a very similar marlner (Lieherman and Bluinsteia i988),and that differences between the two ge groups may be related more to the infonnation available (i. e.,to extemal circumstances) than to any innatc differences in ability (Maasam i987).ln fact.according to cogriitive sci- eniisis,lhe idea of the adult brain atmphying' or in some way becoming incapable of pro- ducing new sounds is an erroneous one,since the brain rctaina a measure of exibility or plaalicity' throughout ita life (Diamond 1988). However,it is undoubtrdly the case that adults will acquiie the phonological system of a second language in a manncr different from that of their rrt language,given that the aoquisition of the new sounds iii the second language must be integrated into already exist- ing neural networks.As Jacobs puts it (1938: 327),'Biological factors impose lirniiatiuna much the same as psycholngical and sociocultural factors .4 ., but none of these variables in iaalation irnpose ari absolute upper bound on [second language arariiisitinnl. ' Adulls are then capable of rising to the challenge of performing conipetenlly in a new sound system, Of course,factors other than the brain's ability to create new neural networks for the proccsring and production of the target-language sounds also plny a role.Scott (i989),far imltance,demonsrrates that auditrrty perception diminishes with age,especially for those over 60 - a factor hat would denitely hindei older adults in their attempts to acquire tar- getlike pronunciation in a second language.A similar cauiion is sounded by Jacobs (i983),who notes that the envirurunent in which adults typically leam a second language (i. e.,the classrocnn) may not be as rich aa that experienoed by children acquiring a second language in a more natural.input-rich environment.Thus when we discuss child/ adult differences in phanological acquisitiou we may be compar-ing the proverbial apples and oranges.Finally,Ausubel (1964),Guiora (1972),Sdrumarin (i975),and others note that the dis- parity between child and adult performance may be explained through a complex interplay of social and psychological factors (discussed later).In sum,we should be wgnizant of such external factors when drawing any conclusimrs about age, The implications of the forogoing theories with regard to the teaching of pronuncia- Lion deaerve reflection.For example,it (as sonic research indicatrs) adults are capable of acquiring a high degree ot' pronunciation accuracy in u second language but are more impeikd in their acquisiticn of target language phonology by nonliriguistic factors than are children,then we need tu build into courses for adults more ueney and condence- balildiug activities we should also have uur adult leamers seriously examine their per- sonal goals in the pronunciittion class.Likewise,if Soovels (1988) claim:conceming the inability or rnosi adults to achieve targetlike pronnnciation are valid,then teachers need to redene the goal of the pionunciaiion class a5 oomfonahlc inlellrgihility rather than aceuracy,and ensure that this goal is reflector!in the methods.activities.and materials of the ESL class. EXPOSURE ro THE TMIGET LANGUAGEAccording to the language leaming tllenries of Postovsky (1974),Asher (1977),and Krashen (1982),among oihcrr,leamers aoquire language primarily from the input theySee lan muito:lo ind the mui-nit volumea by wong (rms) and Bowen and Mir-rr (i992) fm a discusion ofetmdaicerbiailding activities. Research on Pronunciation Skills ' ireceive,and they must receive large amount:of comprehenaible input before they are required to speak.I!true,learnera exposure to the target language will be a critical factor n deterrnining their success.In EPI.settings,especially those where students have little opportunity to surround themselves with native input in the target language,the burden will fall more on the teacher to provide an adequate model of the target language.and to ascertain that students have opportunities outside of class (eg,iii language-laboratory or learning-center environments) to experience samples of the authenric oral disc/ curse of native speakers;similarly,it will fall to teachers to encourage out-of-class conversational use of the target language.However,even in ESL settings,where the leamers are sur- rounded by the Englisnspeaking world,many speakers live in linguistic gi-retros' with relativcly liirle exposure to native speakers of the target language in their homes and even in their work sites,Again,in such cases,the teacher should cry to maximizc students exposure lo the target,and to cncouragc them to expand their own domains of linguistic gonrpetence,stressing the importance of language exposure in the process ot aequiring all aspects of language:pronunciation,grarninar,and Vocabulary. anoum AND rvr-r or i-irioir PRONUNCIATION INSTRUCTIONAssuming that we arc dealing with learnera who have had prior expcsurc to English,we also need to examine the amount and type of prior pronunciatinn instructinn students have had.In EFL settings,instruciion may have taken die form nf iepetitiorl drllls led by a teacher whose own pronunciation different from the target nonn.Alternutively,in an ESL muliiskills clau,pronunciatan may nat have been explicitly dcalt with at all,and students may not have been fully aware of their pronunciation pmblerns.Whatever the scenm-io,we need to recognize thai in any pmnunciation class at the intermediate or advanced levels of profieiency,we may bc dcaling with somewhat xed or systemaric pronunciazictn errors.Thus the syllahus and techniques rhat we implement must be iailmed tu the types of prota lems we discern among our students. APTITUDE,ATTITUDE,AND MOTIVATION Are some learners inherently more capable of acqniring a good pronunciation than others! Skehan's (i989) overview of CarrolPs (1965, |98|) research on language aptitude is use- ful here.According to Canon.there are four trait:that constitute language aptitude: l.Pharlemir coding ability:the capacity ln discriminale and code foreign sounds such that they can be installed.Grammarcal sensitivity:the ability lo analyze language and gure out rules 3. Inductive language learning ability:the capacity to pick up language through exposui-c 4. Mztnary:the amount of rote lean-ring activity needed to inrernalire something (a new sound.a lcximl iran.a grammatieal rule,the prominciation or Spelling of a word.eta)Our main concem here ia the first nuit.although the memory mit is alsrirelevant.Same learners ale in fact fairly balanced in these tour imita,When-zas others have very strong patterns or strength and wcairncss.Leamers weakin phoneruic coding ability would therefore have much more dirnculty schicving a readily inlelligible prcinuncialion han those with high aptitude in this domain.Teachers (and pronunciation syllabuaes) need to be sensitive to auch learner differences and not expect all lcarncrs tn achieve the same level of success in the same amount uf time. According tia slrrinuu phonetnic coding ability ir thc hngrurgs aptitude trait aint relatos rusa ic orie'a general intelligence.rhir suggest:that 'having an cn for language' may be quriinrrvcly different mm odia language aptitude!ot traits. 17. Pronunciation Instluction ill PerspectivaSnow and Shapira (1985),on the other hand.discount the importance of aptitude.painting oul that we have all dernonstrated language learning ability via rcquisition ar our native language.One argument against assigning the detemiining role to aptitude.accord- ing to these researchers,is the fact that low-ability leamers (aa n-leasured hy language apti- tude tests) are in fact often able to atlain tluency in a second language while some high- ability leamers are not, As should be evident by now,the network of factors influencing an individuals acquisrion of second language phonology is a tremeudnusly complicatod one.Indeed.as Stevick (1976) suggests,we need to go beyond language aptitude and educational or cul- tural experience lo see how individuals nd their peisonulities affect the leaming process.Of help in underaunding leamers attitudes toward lhe target language and their motiva- tion (or lack lhereof) to aequire this language is research at cxantincs llie effect of per- sonality and the acculturation process on language acqusi on. Guiora (i972) notes thai persotlltlily,or in his words language ego,is al the very core of the language learning process,especially where the skill o!pronunciatiou ia concemed.Speaking a foreign language entails lhe radical operation of leaniing and manipuluting a new grammar.syntax,und Vocabulary and,at the extreme liniits of pmciency,modify- ing one of the basic modos of identication by the self and others.the way we sound (p.144).Painting out the oen dramutic discicpancy between certain individuals amin- ment in pronunciation versus their attairiment in other skill areas,Guiora poslulates that accent or pronunciatimi is a unique feature ot language performance one that can provide the key to the extent lo which the individual is psycholugically capable or stepping into a new ayatern bt conlmunication' (p.144)}Following in Guiorfs footstepe is Schumaurfs work on the role that iiccululratiou plays in the process of language acquisitiou.Schumarin (1975) echoes Guioi-as hypotlie- sis that ego pcrmeablllty (i. e.,the extent to which the ego can be exible and rdnpt) and personslity factors are at the hem of second language aoquisitiou.Schnmaun further states hat in adults,the development of rm ego boundaries,along with individuals atliludinal and motivationnl nrientationa,enn place eunairainta mi the cognitive process of language leaming.Given such crmstraints,adulta might well be hilldlered from atiainirlg their bio- logieauy determined capabilities. Schummnk nccultumtlon model (Schumalln 1986) clearly delineams the rule that social and arrective variables rnay play in language equis on.This rnodel,baaed on the promise that certain social nd effective variables cluster into a single variable of acall- nn-aiion,states that lesmers wiu inquire the target language ln the degree that they aecul- tnrare,Two types of determining factors are;(l) those concerned with the language learn- ing of a group of people.or sociocultural variables (eg.social dumiltaiice patterns.size of the foreign language population,amount of cmigruence between the foreign and target language culturea);and (1) factura txmcemed with individual dilerences,or alfective vari- ables (eg,ego perrneability,personality,type or motivacion,degree of culture shock).schurnann notes that sociocultural variables do nnt prohibit successful second language leaming.That is,individuals may learn languages silccessfully under sociocultural condi- Lions that are not favorable,or vice versa they niay not leam a language under sociocul- tural conditions that te highly flvomble.Thus although thc two sets of variables alwaysFor amare thorough dismarian aflhe rnle o aptitude in second language aoquirition and r slnrinury nnhe research on individual differences,aer Sltehan (1989). lScveml studies hare riternpted ho aacertain whether arlicially inducirtg the language ego to become more permeable tie.via ingestiorl or alcohol or valium,nr rin hypnotirrn) will result in an inrreraed degree aftzrgetlike prvnunciation.The results are xmnewhat mixed.although the aipdsea provide some evidence ora correlation between ego permeability and aceurrcy nfprotluncinlion.For detaiir ree Guion (1972).Guiorn et L (1972).Ind Schurrilmu et al.(ma). Research on Pronunciation Skills . . Il V.. r interacl,allective variables appear to carry more weight (han sociocultural ones in deter- minirig any leamefs acquisition process.ln applying this model,Sehuinann dfferentiates between two types of successful aecultumtion,ln the first type,the leamer dernonstntes lrriepntm rnatlvouon - that is,a desire to be socinlly integrated in the target culture. - ln the second type of accullurntion.the leal-ner denionstrates the same openriess to the target culture,but additionally regards target language speakers as his reference group.This second type of motivution appears to he akin lo that described by Graham (1985): ; uutmllauvn IIIGMVIIGII,and implica desire an the part of the leamer to become an indistinguishable member of the target speech corn- munity.(Asairnilative motivatiou.which is rare among adult second language learners.is what all children have when learning their first language. ) Accordingly.one can hypothe- size that tlris second type of leamer would willingly einlyrace the target culture,and would therefore be rnnle apt to acquire targetlike pronunciation in the second language.Instrumental ntowarlan,in which an individual learrls a second language to attnin a certain goal.for instauce a job promotion,does not contribute to successful aocultilration,according tn Schuniann.However.other researchers auch as Laikmani (1972) nrgue that lhe intensiiy of motivation is often as important as the type of motivaiion at play.Iii other words,someone with extnordinarily high instrumental rrtotivation (e. g.,someone who wants to sound like a native speaker iii order lo function effectivcly as n actor or n espi- onage agent) may well achieve a better pronunciation than someone with iritcgrative moti- vntion thai is quite positive yet less intense.THE ROLE or THE NATIVE Lanauacswhether our students are fiom a homogeneous language group (as is most often the case in EFL settings) nr from diverse language baekgrounds (as is common in ESL class- rooms),we need to consider their native langiruge(a) iri deciding on pronunciation priori- lies,Por this we can draw un a growing body of research in second language phonnlogy.This eld concems itself with questions such ns the following: l.To what degree is the process nf phouological acquisition in unes first language similar lo the process of acquiring the sound system of a second language? 2. To what degree do prnnuncinnon patterns acquired in 0rtes lira:language govern or determine the process of second language phonulogical acquisition? 3. Are there underlying language universals in the acquisition uf phonology?How can there univemls help us gain iriaights into students pmnunciation of the target language? Six somewhat overlapping theorries or hypcltheses of second-language phnnological aoquisition have been proposed:contrastive airalysis.error analysis and avoidancc.inter- language analysis.rnat-lredneaa theory,language universala,and information processing theory,Even though these lheorics are not all mutilally exclusive,we will deal with each or tirern in turn fur the purposes of clarity and historical accuracy. THE coNTnAsnvE ANALYsls HYPOTHESISCenainly the most longstanding theory of phonological aoquisilion is the contamina analysis Irypothem.originally proposed tn explain all aspects of language adquisicion (Lado 1957),this theory holds that Second language acquiaition is ltered through the leamofs first language,with the native language facilitating aoquisition in those cases where the target structurea are similar,and interfering' with adquisicion in casos where'Jhis (unn of morivutioru laa oeu hem diacumd in the lltenamre as ll posilive force in language acqui- sitinn (see Gartnu and Lambert i971). 18. l__, __. _Pronunciation lnstructiun iri Perspectivathe target structures dissimilar ur nonexlsteitt.As with many tlieories.the contrastivo ' hypotliesis ally enjnytad widcspxvad ucczptanee on all fmnls that is,ns a explanstien tor the direulnes expcrienced by lcarners in the reahns of syntax,mor- phology,sud phonotogy.Hewever,the (hcory has since been challenges].primarily en the basis et its initbility lo prediet the degree of difficulty teamers would experience witii a given itern and on the basis of conicling evidence irorn error analysis and interlauguage research (discusxed shtmly). Thu most unlightened fann of lhe Conuasrive analysis ltypulhcsis came from Wardhaugh (1970),who rejcclad the strong version (that conlraslivc analysis would bc able to predict all leaming problems) and argucd fur the validity of a wealr version (that eonrrastive analysis could explain the cause of many,hul lar rrum all,syalcmalic lan guagc-lcaming tamara).Today mort rclicarchels in the field,while niinimizing lhe role that native language interferencia plays in other ureas ur language aequisirion,would agree that Inlet-fertiles (nuw more commonly refened to as negativo transfer) ls valid in second lan- guage prenuneiutiun aequisition.Like Lado and Wardhuugh,these researchers hold that negative transfer is a iguirieant factor in accouuting tor foreign accernr,partieularly wirh regard ln lhe acquisitlon of more general segmental features such as aspiratinn and of suprasegrncntal features such as inlonarlon and rhythm (cf.Bmselow 1987; Braselriw.Hurlig,and Ringcn i987; Sato 1987; Tarunc l987b).Elnou ANALYSIS AND AVOIDANCEBanarhy and Madarulw,(1969) were early crilics of oontraslive analysis and urguud for the nwd to complement cnntrastjve analysis with error analysis (i. e.,un analysis of errors that uocur in the lcamers interlnnguage system) especially if one planned w apply results to language teaching: Contrastive linguistics nn matter how reftnod can only point toward a poten- tial leaniing problem or dimculty.On the other hand,error analysis can tell us the intensity or the difficulty or the sirs of the prehlem,(p.92)Richards (1971),another crilic uf tiverreliance on contmslive analysis who was also a propunent of error analysis,proposed a three-way classification of language leaming errors that he believed would both shed light un lhe second language acquisilion process and better inlomi language teaching: l.lnlerlirlgual errors:those errors caused by negative transfer from the leamefs first language2. Inlralingual errnrs:those errors shemrning fmm marked or complex features in thc structure ot the target language itself and which thus seem tu be committed by all second language learuers or the target langniage regardless of their native language3. Devclopmental errors:those second language errors that reect the same problems and strategies that young children eneounter and use in acquiring the target language as their iirst language. Dt course.error analysis has also had its cnties,whe hold that ir ends to focus on leamers problems (i. e.,what they do wrong) rather than learncrs accomplishmenls (ie,what they do right).This line otreasoning helped give rise to interlanguage analysis (see next section).In addirion,eritics nrade the argument that ermr analysis iguores the strate- gy of aveidauee (see Kleinman 1977; schaehter i974),whieh occurs when leamers take advantage of the pamphrase potential ot language to avoid eenseiously or unconscious ly the use of words or struetures that they nnd dtfcult.Thus in English one can avoid using relative clauses by tomiing a paraphiase with rwe simple sentenees.Lilrewise,if Research on Pronunciation Skillscamera cannot remember whether tu say vility ur civilness, ' they cun paraphrase with good behavior' or some such expression. Howcver,to dcmmlrale tlic existence er avuldnnce one has to show that second lan- guage lcarners,given a particular lask,are using a parLiculat word or structure Lhcy find dirrieuli with a signicantly lower requency than native speakers pcrfonning the same task.Thus rather than the presence of n systomutic errur,one accounts for the systematic absence ul a fnnn using thenries such as contrastivc analysis,performance data.or error analysis._Schachlel (1974) originally argutad thai avuidance did nu!occur on lhe phorlolnglcal level in the way that lt did un the syntaetic level or lcxical level since one could ner,for ersrnple.avoid the o/in words like the,tlris.that when speakrng English.Huwevcr,sev eral researchers have reported coutexts in whieh phoriological uveidanee seems to play a role.Heuer (1976) tells of spanisnspeuking adults in cvening mi.classes who avoid using sirnilar-sounding ltigllsh-Spartish euguatcs (eg,quality-quitado) in their English hecuusc they believe sueh words are spanish.not English.tielcu-lvlurcia (i977) describes the speech of Caroline,a Zycu-old child acqtliring English and French simultaneously.who selected the word that was easiest for her to aniculate or upproximate regurdless of which language she was using at the timcz'Caroline:Speech French English / ku: tu/couteau knife lpuzn/cuillcr upeon lutml maisult home lkamyo/camion truck(CACPrMHYCI 1977: 36)'Ihus il seems as if phonolugical avoidance is a Gaming strategy that may nocur whctr ever circumslnnces perl-nit and that avuidanoe is not exolustvely syntactic and laxtcrrl butmust be considered a strategy that potentially applies to all areas of second languagc acqutsrtion. THE INTEHLANGUAGE HYPOTHESISAt the nulsel of the 19705, Selinker (1969, 1972) proposed the nation of lmadanguap.This term lefers lo the linguistic codes 0|' second language learrlers which,according (a Selinkcr,reect unique systems.At the core of Selinkcr:construct is the nation that inter- language grammar can function independently of the speakers native language or the tar get language.and that it follows a system all its own based on first Language.second lan guage input,language universals,and communication strategies.The term fosrlllmuun,and its dcrivatives,also comes from Sclinker (1972),who describes il as a plateait in Ian guage learning heyoud whieh it is ditricult for leamers to progress without exceprienal effort or morivation. The nation of inlerlarlguagc was further developed by Corder (1974),Who visuulizcs interlanguage as a dynamic centinuum along which a second language learner crm move toward an increasingly targetlike system.The learner continually processes input from the target language and anes rules m hypurheses iri the direction of th:target or until here is fossilization. The research n phonolagy that Was driven by lhe intcrlanguagc hypolhcsis cenlered on the developmental nature of the leamefs interlanguage and rm invcstigaling the um Versality of plionological amuisition patterns across age and language groups.Research onSee also Ferguson and FarweLVs (1975) study on the plrenologicul ncqllision_of mundi-Ig!English- spealring children iu which they report that the etiitdren persistendy void paruculur sounds. _nu| 19. l-TPronunciation Instiuctlon in Perspectivainterlanguage phonology in the l9soa (see loup and Weinberger 1987) had several focus- es,which included:(l) models of phonological development.(Z) llleories of inierlanguuge phonology,(3) acquisilion of syliable structure,(4) aoquisition of supnsegmenlals,and (S) the vsrying phonclogical production of lesmers resuliing from lhe fonnality of thc speech situation in which leamers are engaged.the anxiely they me experiencing (see Tarone 1988).and so on. MAIIEDNES THEORYA fourih theory thai has oonirihuted lo lhe eld of second language acquisiion ia Interlud- neu theory,which proposes that in every linguistic opposition phonological or semantic there is one member of any pair of opposites thai is psycholingustically unmurhd (mote basic or neutral,more iuliversal,more frequent,first acquired) and one that is married (more specic,lesa frequent.mote liaiiied,later aoquirod),This theory ia helpful in explaining phonological differences among languages.For example.according to marked ness theory.E1glish (which allows both voiceless lp,t.k/and voiccd lb.d.g/stop con- sonanis in word- or syllable-nal position) is more marked with respect lo stop otrnsonanis in nal position ihan are German and Russian (which permit only voiceless stop conso- ntnla / p, t,k/in this position). Markedness theory was first proposed and developed by Tnibetzkoy (i939) and Jakubson (194!) along with other linguisis from the Prague School.In terms of current research on second-language pbrmological acqu tien,rnarkedness theory has been applied by Bckman (1977) io his rnarlredness differential ltypoihesis.ln essence.Bclrmans work combine:elements of the previously discusaed hypotheses,assening that although t is 'necessary io compare descriptions of lhe native and target languages in order lo predict areas of ditrrculty,. .. this alone is not sufcient' (p.so). Eckmaws theory is a direct response to cr-iiicisnrs of the cnntrasiive analysis hypoth- ess specically,that it did not (l) accuralely predict which areas of target language phonology would be most difcult for learners of a given language group or (2) mediar which exact sounds would be suhsiituted lay the leamer.ln the case of Gelman and English,for example,lllb oontraslive analysis hypothesis can eslabliah that these two lan- guages place very different lirnitations on the positions in which the voioed sinps and (rica- tives lla,d,g,v,z/oocur,wiih German (with some diiilecial variation) allowing them only in syllahleinitial position and English alluwing a rrrueit more var-led occurrence (see Moultun 1962).Having established this difference,the txmlnstive analysis hypotllesis nan predict that learoeis from these two language haekgrornrds would have difficulty pto- nouncng (. e..voicing ur devoicing) the nal tropa and niearives in the other language;contrasive analysis alone,how/ ever,is not able lo establish a ilfetlnallfy of diiculiy.ln other words,it could not prediot whether native English speakers would have more dif- culty leaming lo prononnoe the rrnal oomonsnt of the Gennan word Bad bath' as [t] ur whether native German speakers would he more apt to nave diiculty voicing the nal ldl of dle English word bad. Eckman purposes lo remedy this decierrcy hy constluciing a hierarehy of dinicnlry for phouological aoquisition that utilizas nsights from markcdness theory.l-lis nrarlredness differential liypothesis clainis to aoclirately predial that German speakers (whose languageprohibir:them hora voicing siops and iricatives in nal position) will.when spealring English,experience difculty in producing the marked voiced-eonsonant forms in nal position.On the otherhand,English speakers (whose native language allows either voiced or voioeless nal stops and -icsiives) will,when spealong German.experience relatively less difcillty in leaming [o ignore the marked fomis and io use the Iinmaxkcd forms exclu- sively in ayuahle-nal position.Research on Pronunciation SkillsThis line of linguistic investigation should.according w Rokr-tan.help us augment the Nights g d from contrsstivc analysis and predict not only which sounds lead-ner;would have dlfficlilty with,but which problems would be more diriicult for a linguistical ly homogeneous group of leal-nen.LANGUAGE uNIvEnsALsRnthcr than assumc (aa most structural linguisls have) tiist languagis emilia trim other unprediciably and without lirnrl (Jocs 1958),lhe lingulsts w o EM y a? ' (Error-veual:asume hat all languages share common properties and that lr su aceences might rcnially be quite unimpomnt . The quest lor language universttla has taken two different paihs: l.Jakobsonk (1941) seminnl work,which gJeaiIy inuenced Chomskys (1986) model of 'universal grammar' with ita prlnolplu (given alarm-ts) and var-num' (Femm- ned variaiions),as well as Chomsky/ s argumenta far positing an innato language scquisiiion device in all humans2. Greenbergs (i962) typological or implications] language universals.which examine aspects of languagelhal ale common to many,and sometimes all.languagesln iemis of sound systems,both versions of the universalist hypothesis start from the observaiinn that given all lhe sounds the human vocal apparatus could possinlsly languages of the world draw on a mmarkahly nile irlveritory of sounds a s ably similar oombinaiory and hierarchical principles that explain how natural languages are spokm For example,all languages have vowel sounds and consonarit sounds.and wiilun these categories there are sounds that cono-asi wilh each other rn predicuble ways. ln tandem with these liniversals about the sound systems of languages,here ar;rzlatr ed principles of phonnlogioal aoqiilsition that predict.for example,that Still I |scquirod before sound B,The most mnuontial work regarding language iimvellsak bm study of pliomlogical mquisilon has been that of lakobsan (1941),Given o so inrplieational liierarchy: siops > Nasals > Fricaiiveswe can predial that a language with flicatives will also llave nasals and siopabflllaul lioteizcs:essarily vice versa).Likewise.a language wlih nasals wil. l also have siops ( nO nsaniy vice versa)._ _ _ l f h Macken and Ferguson (1937) use Jalrohson s hrerarchy lo state unrversa s o p ono-logical acquisition implied hy the hierarchy:. stops are aoquired before nasals.- Nasau are required before h-icatives. They note that suhstitutions made in the early stages of ncquisiiion cm also be predcted:- Fricaves will be replaced by steps. Fsltrnarr (i991) combines earlier work on interlangiiage analysis.Inarkedness theory.and Greenhergian implicational univeisals in order to apply the Inner-limpio; - sti-ranura!Confnrmny Hypolltesl:(ISCH) to the aoquisition ot pronunciation.The ISCH,whicl;huida that implicatioiial universals can be used io explain certain facls about the fnlm o inter- langmgcg without any reference io the learners rst language,was rst proposed byVlpaysky and Menu (1987) rernind ns that Jahahsorrs lrierareities help us account ror.among nibtrr things.reg-donne:in the conmnant inventarios of languages. _T
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